Gweld cod am Saesneg

{{Gwybodlen iaith
| enw =Saesneg
| enwbrodorol =''English''
| lliwteulu =Indo-Ewropeg
| ynganiad =
| rhanbarth= (gweler [[#Dosbarthiad daearyddol|isod]])
| siaradwyr=Iaith gyntaf: 309–400 miliwn <br />Ail iaith: 199 miliwn–1.4 biliwn<ref>gweler: [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eng Ethnologue] (1984 amcangyfrif); [http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=883997 The Triumph of English], The Economist, Rhag. 20, 2001; [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eng Ethnologue] (1999 amcangyfrif); {{Dyf gwe |url=http://www.oxfordseminars.com/Tesol/Pages/Teach/teach_20000jobs.php |teitl=20,000 Teaching Jobs |dyddiadcyrchu=2007-02-18 |cyhoeddwr=Oxford Seminars }}</ref><ref name="wwenglish">{{Dyf gwe |url=http://www.ehistling-pub.meotod.de/01_lec06.php |teitl=Lecture 7: World-Wide English |dyddiadcyrchu=2007-03-26|cyhoeddwr=<sub>E</sub>HistLing }}</ref><br />Cyffredinol: 500 miliwn–1.8 biliwn<ref name="wwenglish"/><ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eng Ethnologue] (1999 amcangyfrif);</ref>
| teu2=[[Ieithoedd Germanaidd|Germaneg]]
| teu3=[[Ieithoedd Germanaidd Gorllewinol|Germaneg Orllewinol]]
| teu4=[[Ieithoedd Eingl-Frisianaidd|Eingl-Frisianeg]]
| teu5=[[Ieithoedd Saesneg|Angeleg]]
| sgript=[[Yr wyddor Ladin|Lladin]] ([[Yr wyddor Saesneg|Amrywiolyn Lloegr]])
| gwlad=[[Rhestr gwledydd lle bo'r Saesneg yn iaith swyddogol|53 gwlad]]<br />[[Y Cenhedloedd Unedig]]<br />[[Undeb Ewropeaidd]]<br />[[Y Gymanwlad]] <br /> [[Cyngor Ewrop]] <br />[[NATO]] <br />[[Cytundeb Masnach Rydd Gogledd America|CMRGA]] <br /> [[Sefydliad Taleithiau America|STA]] <br /> [[Sefydliad y Gynhadledd Islamaidd|SyGI]] <br /> [[Sefydliad Ynysoedd y Cefnfor Tawel|SYyCT]] <br /> [[Cytundeb Unol Daleithiau America a'r Deyrnas Unedig|CUDAD]]
| iso1=en |iso2=eng |iso3=eng |wylfa=52-ABA |map=[[Delwedd:Anglospeak.svg|center|300px]]
{{legend|#0000ff|Gwledydd lle mai iaith swyddogol neu de facto yw'r Saesneg, neu iaith genedlaethol}}
{{legend|#8ddada|Gwledydd lle mai iaith swyddogol yw hi ond nid yn brif iaith}}
| IPAChartEng=include
}}
[[Delwedd:Shakespeare.jpg|bawd|150px|upright|[[William Shakespeare]], un o ysgrifenyddion enwocaf yr iaith Saesneg]]

[[Iaith]] Germanaidd sy'n frodorol i [[Lloegr|Loegr]] yw'r '''Saesneg''' (''English''). Mae'n un o ddwy iaith swyddogol yng [[Cymru|Nghymru]] (ynghyd â'r [[Cymraeg|Gymraeg]]) yn ogystal, ac yn un o ieithoedd mwya'r byd. Mae'n llawer iau na'r Gymraeg a'r ieithoedd Celtaidd eraill.

Datblygodd y Saesneg o iaith [[Germaniaid|llwythau Germanaidd]] ag ymsefydlodd ym [[Ynys Prydain|Mhrydain]] rhwng y [[5g|bumed]] a'r [[7g]] gan ddisodli iaith a diwylliant y [[Brythoniaid]] brodorol o rannau o dde-ddwyrain Prydain a chreu'r teyrnasoedd [[Eingl-Sacsoniaid|Eingl-Sacsonaidd]]. Erbyn [[10g]] roedd y teyrnasoedd hyn wedi uno i greu teyrnas Lloegr. Lledodd y Saesneg drwy'r byd yn sgîl trachwant [[imperialaeth|imperialaidd]] y [[Saeson]] a arweiniodd at greu [[gwladychu|gwladfeydd]] Seisnig mewn sawl rhan o'r byd.

Oherwydd ei lle fel iaith mwyafrif yr [[Unol Daleithiau]], mae'r Saesneg wedi dod yn brif iaith y byd ar gyfer cyfathrebu rhyngwladol. Dysgir Saesneg fel ail iaith yn fwy nag unrhyw iaith arall, ond y ffurf Americanaidd ar yr iaith a ddysgir yn amlach na'r ffurf Seisnig.

Mae [[llenyddiaeth Saesneg]] yn un o'r [[llenyddiaeth]]au mwyaf yn y byd, a'i gwreiddiau'n gorwedd yn y cyfnod Eingl-Sacsonaidd. Mewn canlyniad i'r dirywiad yn nifer y siaradwyr Cymraeg a'r [[Seisnigeiddio]] yn y wlad, mae gan Gymru ei [[llenyddiaeth Saesneg Cymru|llenyddiaeth Saesneg]] hefyd: ysgrifennodd [[Dylan Thomas]] ei storïau a'i gerddi yn Saesneg, er enghraifft.

=== Ymadroddion ===

* Saesneg: ''English''
* Pa hwyl: ''Hello''
* Bore da: ''Good morning''
* Hwyl Fawr: ''Goodbye''
* Os gwelwch yn dda: ''please''
* Diolch: ''thank you''
* Cymraeg: ''Welsh''
* Sut mae?: ''All right?''
* Sut ydych chi?: ''How are you?''
* Rydw i'n: ''I am''
* Ble mae'r ysgol?: ''Where's the school?''
* Ble mae'r ysbyty?: ''Where's the hospital?''

==Cyffredinol==
Mae [[gramadeg]] yr iaith Saesneg yn weddol debyg i'r Gymraeg i'w chymharu â'r Tsieiniaidd er enghraifft, gan fod y ddwy iaith yn dod o'r teulu Indo-Ewropeaidd. Serch hyn mae gramadeg yr ieithoedd Romawns a'r Almaeneg llawer yn fwy tebyg i Saesneg nag ydyw i'r Gymraeg.

Daw'r enw Saesneg ar yr iaith (''English'') ar ôl yr [[Angliaid|Angles]], un o'r hen [[Germaniaid|bobloedd Germanaidd]] a ymfudodd o Anglia, penrhyn ar y [[Y Môr Baltig|Môr Baltig]] (na ddylid ei gymysgu ag [[Dwyrain Anglia|East Anglia]] yn Lloegr), i ardal [[Prydain Fawr|Ynysoedd Prydain]] a enwyd hefyd ar ol y llwyth, sef England (o 'Angles land').  Mae perthnasau byw agosaf yr iaith Saesneg yn cynnwys y [[Sgoteg]], ac yna'r ieithoedd [[Sacsoneg Isel]] a [[Ffriseg]]. Tra bod y Saesneg yn tarddu o'r [[Germania|Gorllewin Germania]], mae ei geirfa hefyd yn cael ei dylanwadu'n arbennig gan yr Hen Ffrangeg Normanaidd a [[Lladin]], yn ogystal â'r [[Hen Norseg]] ([[Ieithoedd Germanaidd Gogleddol|iaith Gogledd Germania]]).<ref name="Wolff">{{Cite book|last=Finkenstaedt|first=Thomas|last2=Dieter Wolff|title=Ordered profusion; studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon|publisher=C. Winter|year=1973|isbn=978-3-533-02253-4}}</ref>{{Sfn|Bammesberger|1992}}{{Sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006}} Gelwir siaradwyr Saesneg yn Anglophones.

Daeth y ffurfiau cynharaf o'r Saesneg o grŵp o dafodieithoedd Gorllewin Germanaidd (sef Ingvaeonic) a ddygwyd i ynysoedd Prydain gan [[Eingl-Sacsoniaid|ymsefydlwyr Eingl-Sacsonaidd]] yn y [[5g]] ac a dreiglodd ymhellach ar dafodau ymsefydlwyr [[Llychlynwyr|Llychlynnaidd]] eu hiaith gan ddechrau yn yr [[8fed ganrif|8fed]] a'r [[9g]], ac a elwir gyda'i gilydd yn ''[[Hen Saesneg]]''. Dechreuodd [[Saesneg Canol]] ar ddiwedd yr [[11g|11g yn dilyn]] [[Concwest Normanaidd Lloegr|concwest Normaniaid Ffrainc ar Loegr]], ac o'r herwydd, ymgorfforwyd cryn dipyn o eirfa Ffrangeg (yn enwedig [[Ffrangeg Normanaidd|Hen Normaneg]]) a [[Lladin]] i'r Saesneg dros gyfnod o ryw dri chan mlynedd.<ref name="Ian Short 2007. p. 193">Ian Short, "Language and Literature", yn ''A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World'', gol. Christopher Harper-Bill a Elisabeth M. C. van Houts (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2007), t.19)</ref>{{Sfn|Crystal|2003b}} Dechreuodd Saesneg Modern Cynnar ar ddiwedd y [[15g]] tua'r un adeg a dyfodiad y [[Gwasg argraffu|wasg argraffu]] i [[Llundain|Lundain]], argraffu Beibl y Brenin Iago a dechrau'r ''Great Vowel Shift''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How English evolved into a global language|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753|date=20 Rhagfyr 2010|publisher=BBC|access-date=9 Awst 2015|archivedate=25 September 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925173407/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753}}</ref>

Mae Saesneg modern wedi lledaenu o gwmpas y byd ers [[17eg ganrif|17g]] o ganlyniad i ddylanwad byd-eang yr [[Yr Ymerodraeth Brydeinig|Ymerodraeth Brydeinig]] ac [[Unol Daleithiau America]]. Trwy bob math o gyfryngau print ac electronig y gwledydd hyn, mae Saesneg wedi dod yn brif iaith trafodaethau rhyngwladol a'r ''[[lingua franca]]'' mewn llawer o ranbarthau a chyd-destunau proffesiynol megis gwyddoniaeth, [[mordwyo]] a'r gyfraith.{{Sfn|The Routes of English}} Mae gramadeg Saesneg modern yn ganlyniad o newid graddol o batrwm [[Ieithoedd Indo-Ewropeaidd|Indo-Ewropeaidd]] nodweddiadol, gyda [[Morffoleg (iaith)|morffoleg ffurfdroadol]] [[Ffurfiant|gyfoethog]] a threfn geiriau gymharol rydd, i batrwm dadansoddol yn bennaf heb fawr o ffurfdro, a phwnc gweddol sefydlog - berf – trefn geiriau gwrthrych.{{Sfn|König|1994}} Mae Saesneg modern yn dibynnu mwy ar ferfau ategol a threfn geiriau ar gyfer mynegiant amserau cymhleth, agwedd a naws, yn ogystal â chystrawennau goddefol, holiadau a pheth negyddu.

Saesneg yw'r [[Rhestr ieithoedd yn nhrefn nifer eu siaradwyr brodorol|drydedd iaith frodorol a siaredir fwyaf]] yn y byd, ar ôl [[Tsieineeg|Tsieinëeg Safonol]] a [[Sbaeneg]].{{Sfn|Ethnologue|2010}} Hi yw'r ail iaith a ddysgir fwyaf ac mae naill ai'n iaith swyddogol neu'n un o'r ieithoedd swyddogol mewn [[Rhestr o wledydd a thiriogaethau lle mae'r Saesneg yn iaith swyddogol|59 o daleithiau sofran]] gan gynnwys [[Nigeria]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Two thousand million?|journal=English Today|volume=24|issue=1|pages=3–6|language=en-US|doi=10.1017/S0266078408000023|last=Crystal|first=David|year=2008}}</ref> Saesneg yw iaith fwyafrifol y Deyrnas Unedig, yr Unol Daleithiau, Canada, Awstralia a [[Seland Newydd]], ac fe'i siaredir yn eang mewn rhai ardaloedd o'r Caribî, Affrica, De Asia, De-ddwyrain Asia ac Ynysoedd y De: gwledydd lle'r aeth Lloegr ati i'w gwladychu.{{Sfn|Crystal|2003b}} Mae'n un o ieithoedd gyd-swyddogol y Cenhedloedd Unedig, [[Ieithoedd yr Undeb Ewropeaidd|yr Undeb Ewropeaidd]] a llawer o sefydliadau rhyngwladol a byd-eang eraill. Hon yw'r iaith Germanig a siaredir fwyaf, gan gyfrif am o leiaf 70% o siaradwyr y gangen Indo-Ewropeaidd hon. Mae hefyd yn iaith sy'n dileu ieithoedd eraill, llai. 

Mae llawer o amrywiaeth ymhlith yr acenion a [[Rhestr o dafodieithoedd Saesneg|thafodieithoedd niferus Saesneg]] a ddefnyddir mewn gwahanol wledydd a rhanbarthau o ran [[seineg]] a [[ffonoleg]], ac weithiau hefyd [[geirfa]], [[Idiom|idiomau]], [[gramadeg]], a sillafu, ond nid yw fel arfer yn atal dealltwriaeth siaradwyr o dafodieithoedd a thafodieithoedd eraill.

== Dosbarthiad ==
Fel y nodwyd yn barod, mae Saesneg yn iaith [[Ieithoedd Indo-Ewropeaidd|Indo-Ewropeaidd]] ac yn perthyn i'r grŵp gorllewinol Almaeneg o'r [[ieithoedd Germanaidd]].{{Sfn|Bammesberger|1992|pp=29–30}} Tarddodd [[Hen Saesneg|yr Hen Saesneg]] o gontinwwm llwythol Germanig a [[Continiwm tafodiaith|chontinwwm ieithyddol]] ar hyd arfordir [[Môr y Gogledd]] [[Ffrisia]], y datblygodd ei hieithoedd yn raddol i'r ieithoedd Anglig yn [[Ynysoedd Prydain]], ac i'r [[Ffriseg|ieithoedd Ffriseg]] ac [[Sacsoneg Isel|Isel Almaeneg / Sacsoneg Isel]] ar y cyfandir. Yr ieithoedd Ffriseg, sydd ynghyd â'r ieithoedd Anglig yn ffurfio'r ieithoedd Eingl-Ffrisia, yw perthnasau byw agosaf y Saesneg. Mae Isel Almaeneg/Sacsoneg Isel hefyd yn perthyn yn agos, ac weithiau mae Saesneg, yr ieithoedd Ffriseg, ac [[Sacsoneg Isel|Isel Almaeneg]] yn cael eu grwpio gyda'i gilydd fel yr ieithoedd Ingvaeoneg (Germaneg Môr y Gogledd), er bod dadl yn parhau ynglŷn â'r grŵp hwn.{{Sfn|Bammesberger|1992}} Esblygodd Hen Saesneg yn [[Saesneg Canol]], a esblygodd yn ei dro yn Saesneg Modern.{{Sfn|Robinson|1992}} Datblygodd tafodieithoedd arbennig Hen Saesneg a Chanol Saesneg hefyd yn nifer o ieithoedd Anglig eraill, gan gynnwys [[Sgoteg|Sgoteg.]]{{Sfn|Romaine|1982|pp=56–65}}{{Sfn|Barry|1982|pp=86–87}}

Fel yr [[Islandeg]] yng [[Islandeg|Ngwlad yr Iâ]] a'r [[Ffaröeg]], roedd datblygiad y Saesneg yn [[Ynysoedd Prydain|Lloegr]] yn ei hynysu oddi wrth ieithoedd a dylanwadau Germanaidd cyfandirol, ac oherwydd hynny, mae wedi ymwahanu'n sylweddol. Nid yw Saesneg yn [[Cyd-ddealltwriaeth|ddealladwy i'r ddwy ochr]] ag unrhyw iaith Germanaidd gyfandirol, sy'n amrywio o ran geirfa, [[cystrawen]], a [[ffonoleg]], er bod rhai o'r rhain, megis Iseldireg neu Ffriseg, yn dangos cysylltiad cryf â'r Saesneg, yn enwedig yn ei chyfnodau cynharach.{{Sfn|Harbert|2007}} Ond mae llawer iawn o'r Sgoteg yn ddealladwy i berson sydd yn siarad Saesneg yn unig.

Yn wahanol i Islandeg a Ffaröeg, a oedd yn ynysig, dylanwadwyd ar ddatblygiad y Saesneg gan gyfres hir o oresgyniadau ar Ynysoedd Prydain gan bobloedd ac ieithoedd eraill, yn enwedig [[Hen Norseg]] a [[Ffrangeg Normanaidd]]. Gadawodd y rhain ôl dwfn ar yr iaith, fel bod Saesneg yn dangos rhai tebygrwydd mewn geirfa a gramadeg gyda llawer o ieithoedd y tu allan i'w ffiniau ieithyddol — ond nid yw'n ddealladwy i'r ddwy ochr ag unrhyw un o'r ieithoedd hynny ychwaith. Mae rhai ysgolheigion wedi dadlau y gellir ystyried Saesneg yn iaith gymysg, iaith fastardaidd neu'n [[Creol|creole]]. Er bod dylanwad mawr yr ieithoedd hyn ar eirfa a gramadeg Saesneg Modern yn cael ei gydnabod yn eang, nid yw'r rhan fwyaf o arbenigwyr mewn cyswllt iaith yn ystyried y Saesneg yn iaith gymysg wirioneddol.{{Sfn|Thomason|Kaufman|1988|pp=264–265}}{{Sfn|Watts|2011}}

Mae Saesneg yn cael ei dosbarthu fel iaith Germanaidd oherwydd ei bod mor agos at ieithoedd Germanaidd eraill megis [[Iseldireg]], [[Almaeneg]], a [[Swedeg]].{{Sfn|Durrell|2006}} Mae'r arloesiadau cyffredin hyn yn dangos bod yr ieithoedd wedi disgyn o un hynafiad cyffredin o'r enw [[Proto-Almaeneg|Proto-Germaneg]]. Mae rhai o nodweddion cyffredin ieithoedd Germanaidd yn cynnwys rhannu berfau yn ddosbarthiadau cryf a gwan, y defnydd o ferfau moddol, a'r newidiadau sain sy'n effeithio ar gytseiniaid [[Proto-Indo-Ewropeg|Proto-Indo-Ewropeaidd]], a elwir yn ddeddfau Grimm a Verner. Dosberthir y Saesneg fel iaith Eingl-Ffrisia oherwydd bod Ffriseg a Saesneg yn rhannu nodweddion eraill, megis palataleiddio cytseiniaid a oedd yn gytseiniaid felar yn y Proto-Germane.{{Sfn|König|van der Auwera|1994}}

== Hanes ==
=== Proto-Germanaidd i Hen Saesneg ===
[[Delwedd:Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg|bawd| Yr agoriad i'r gerdd epig Hen Saesneg ''[[Beowulf]]'', mewn [[Llawysgrif|llawysgrifen]] hanner-uncial:

Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon. "Gwrandewch! Yr ydym ni o'r Spaear-Daneaid er ys oesoedd wedi clywed am ogoniant brenhinoedd y werin. . ."

Sylwer nad oes un gair yn ddealladwy i berson sydd a Saesneg modern yn unig. Mor wahanol, felly, i'r Gymraeg, lle mae llawer o Gymraeg Cynnar yn ddealladwy heddiw.]]
Yr enw ar y ffurf gynharaf o'r Saesneg yw [[Hen Saesneg]] neu [[Eingl-Sacsoniaid|Eingl-Sacsoneg]] (c. blwyddyn 550–1066). Datblygodd yr hen Saesneg o set o dafodieithoedd Gorllewin Germanaidd, a oedd yn aml wedi'u grwpio fel Eingl-Ffriseg neu Germanaidd Môr y Gogledd, ac a siaredid yn wreiddiol ar hyd arfordiroedd [[Ffrisia]], [[Niedersachsen|Sacsoni Isaf]] ([[Niedersachsen]]) a de [[Jylland]] gan bobloedd Germanaidd a adwaenid i'r cofnod hanesyddol fel yr Angles, y [[Sacsoniaid]], a'r Jiwtiaid.<ref>Baugh, Albert (1951). A History of the English Language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 60–83, 110–130</ref><ref name="OriginOfAngloSaxon">{{Citation|last=Shore|first=Thomas William|title=[[commons:File:Shore T. W. - Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race.pdf|Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race – A Study of the Settlement of England and the Tribal Origin of the Old English People]]|pages=3, 393|year=1906|edition=1st|place=London|author-link=Thomas William Shore}}</ref> O'r 5g, sefydlodd yr Eingl-Sacsoniaid yn Ynysoedd Prydain wrth i'r economi a'r weinyddiaeth Rufeinig chwalu. Erbyn y 7g, daeth iaith Germanaidd yr [[Eingl-Sacsoniaid]] yn iaith fwyafrif mewn rhanau o Loegr, gan ddisodli ieithoedd [[Britannia|Prydain Rufeinig]] (43–409): [[Brythoneg|y Frithoneg]], y [[Celteg|Gelteg]], a [[Lladin]], a ddygwyd i Brydain gan y [[Britannia|goresgyniad Rhufeinig]].{{Sfn|Collingwood|Myres|1936}}{{Sfn|Graddol|Leith|Swann et al.|2007}}{{Sfn|Blench|Spriggs|1999}}{{Sfn|Bosworth|Toller|1921}}

Rhannwyd yr hen Saesneg yn bedair tafodiaith: 

# tafodieithoedd Anglia, sef Mersia a Northumbria a 
# thafodieithoedd Sacsonaidd, 
# Caint a'r 
# [[tafodiaith Gorllewin Sacsonaidd|Gorllewin Sacsonaidd (neu Sacsoneg Gorllewinol)]].{{Sfn|Campbell|1959|p=4}} 

Trwy ddiwygiadau addysgol y [[Alffred Fawr|Brenin Alfred o Loegr]] yn y [[9g]] a dylanwad teyrnas [[Wessex]], daeth tafodiaith y Gorllewin Sacsonaidd yn [[Iaith safonol|amrywiaeth ysgrifenedig safonol]].{{Sfn|Toon|1992}} Mae'r [[Arwrgerdd|gerdd epig]] ''[[Beowulf]]'' wedi'i hysgrifennu mewn [[tafodiaith Gorllewin Sacsonaidd|Sacsoneg Gorllewinol]], ac mae'r gerdd Saesneg gynharaf, ''Cædmon's Hymn'', wedi'i hysgrifennu yn Northumbria.{{Sfn|Donoghue|2008}} Datblygodd Saesneg modern yn bennaf o'r Merseg (o'r gair Mersia), ond datblygodd [[Sgoteg|yr iaith]] [[Sgoteg]] o Northumbria. Ysgrifennwyd ychydig o arysgrifau byr o gyfnod cynnar yr Hen Saesneg gan ddefnyddio sgript runicg yr Anglo Sacsoniaid.{{Sfn|Gneuss|2013|p=23}} Erbyn y [[6g]], mabwysiadwyd yr wyddor Ladin, wedi'i hysgrifennu â llythrennau hanner-uncial. Roedd yn cynnwys y llythrennau runig ''wynn {{angbr|{{lang|ang|ƿ}}}}'' ⟨a ''thorne'' {{angbr|{{lang|ang|þ}}}}  , a'r llythrennau Lladin addasedig ''eth'' {{angbr|{{lang|ang|ð}}}}  , ac ''ash'' {{angbr|{{lang|ang|æ}}}}.{{Sfn|Gneuss|2013|p=23}}{{Sfn|Denison|Hogg|2006}}

== Iaith wahanol? ==
Mae Hen Saesneg yn ei hanfod yn iaith ar wahân i Saesneg Modern ac mae bron yn amhosibl i siaradwyr Saesneg heb eu hastudio yn yr 21ain ganrif ei deall.

Yr oedd ei gramadeg yn debyg i ramadeg [[Almaeneg]] modern, a'i pherthynas agosaf yw'r Hen Ffriseg. Roedd gan enwau, ansoddeiriau, rhagenwau, a berfau lawer mwy o [[Ffurfiant|derfyniadau a ffurfiau ffurfiannol]], ac roedd trefn geiriau yn llawer mwy rhydd na sydd yn y Saesneg Modern. Mae gan Saesneg modern [[Cyflwr gramadegol|ffurfiau achos]] mewn rhagenwau (''ef'', ''ef'', ''ei'') ac mae ganddi ychydig o ffurfdroadau berfol (''siarad'', ''siarad'', ''siarad'', ''siarad'') '','' ond roedd gan Hen Saesneg derfyniadau achos mewn enwau hefyd, ac roedd gan ferfau fwy o derfyniadau person a [[Rhif gramadegol|rhif]].{{Sfn|Hogg|1992|loc=Chapter 3. Phonology and Morphology}}{{Sfn|Smith|2009}}{{Sfn|Trask|Trask|2010}}

=== Saesneg Canol ===
O'r [[8fed ganrif|8fed]] i'r [[9g]], trawsnewidiodd Hen Saesneg yn raddol trwy gyswllt iaith i [[Saesneg Canol]]. Mae Saesneg Canol yn aml yn cael ei ddiffinio'n fympwyol fel un sy'n dechrau gyda choncwest Lloegr gan [[Wiliam I, brenin Lloegr|William the Conqueror]] yn 1066, ond datblygodd llawer iawn mwy yn y cyfnod rhwng 1200 a 1450.

Yn gyntaf, rhoddodd ymosodiadau gan y Llychlynwyr ar rannau gogleddol Ynysoedd Prydain yn yr 8fed a'r 9g gysylltiad agos iawn rhwng yr Hen Saesneg â'r [[Hen Norseg|Hen Norwyeg]], iaith [[Ieithoedd Germanaidd Gogleddol|ogleddol Germanaidd]]. Roedd dylanwad Llychlynnaidd ar ei gryfaf yn yr amrywiaethau gogledd-ddwyreiniol o Hen Saesneg a siaredir yn ardal [[Y Ddaenfro|Danelaw]] o amgylch Efrog, a oedd yn ganolbwynt i wladychu Llychlynnaidd; heddiw mae'r nodweddion hyn yn arbennig o bresennol yn y [[Sgoteg]] a [[Saesneg Gogledd Lloegr|Saesneg y Gogledd]]. Fodd bynnag, ymddengys fod canol y Saesneg Llychlynaidd wedi bod yng nghanolbarth [[Canolbarth Lloegr|Lloegr]] o amgylch Brenhiniaeth Lindsey, ac ar ôl [[920]] pan ail-ymgorfforwyd Lindsey i'r llywodraeth Eingl-Sacsonaidd, lledaenodd nodweddion Llychlynnaidd oddi yno i dafodieithoedd Seisnig nad oeddent wedi bod mewn cysylltiad uniongyrchol â siaradwyr y Norseg. Elfen o ddylanwad Llychlynnaidd sy'n parhau ym mhob math o Saesneg heddiw yw'r grŵp o ragenwau sy'n dechrau gyda ''th-'' (''they, them, their'') a ddisodlodd y rhagenwau Eingl-Sacsonaidd {{lang|ang|h-}} ({{lang|ang|hie, him, hera}}).{{Sfn|Thomason|Kaufman|1988}}

Gyda choncwest y Normaniaid yn Lloegr yn 1066, daeth yr Hen Saesneg (gyda dylanwad mawr o'r Norseg arni) yn agos iawn at yr [[Hen Ffrangeg]], yn enwedig â thafodiaith yr Hen Normaneg. Yn y pen draw datblygodd y [[Ffrangeg Normanaidd]] yn Lloegr yn Eingl-Normaneg.<ref name="Ian Short 2007. p. 193">Ian Short, ''A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World'', "Language and Literature", Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 2007. (p. 193)</ref> Gan fod [[Normaneg]] yn cael ei siarad yn bennaf gan yr ''elites'' a'r uchelwyr, tra bod y dosbarthiadau is yn parhau i siarad Eingl-Sacsonaidd (Saesneg), prif ddylanwad y Normaniaid oedd cyflwyno ystod eang o [[Gair benthyg|eiriau benthyg]] yn ymwneud â gwleidyddiaeth, deddfwriaeth a pheuoedd cymdeithasol mawreddog.{{Sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006}} Roedd Saesneg Canol hefyd yn symleiddio'r system ffurfdroadol yn fawr, mae'n debyg er mwyn cysoni Hen Norwyeg a Hen Saesneg, a oedd yn ffurfiannol wahanol ond yn forffolegol debyg. Collwyd y gwahaniaeth rhwng y cyflyrau enwol a gwrthrychol ac eithrio mewn rhagenwau personol, gollyngwyd yr cyflwr offerynnol, a chyfyngwyd y defnydd o'r cyflwr genidol i ddynodi meddiant.{{Sfn|Fischer|van der Wurff|2006}}

Ym Beibl Wycliffe y 1380au, ysgrifennwyd yr adnod Mathew 8:20: {{Lang|enm|Foxis han dennes, and briddis of heuene han nestis}}.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wycliffe|first=John|url=http://wesley.nnu.edu/fileadmin/imported_site/wycliffe/wycbible-all.pdf|publisher=Wesley NNU|title=Bible|access-date=9 April 2015|archivedate=2 February 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202202047/http://wesley.nnu.edu/fileadmin/imported_site/wycliffe/wycbible-all.pdf}}</ref> Yma mae'r ôl-ddodiad lluosog {{Lang|enm|-n}} ar y ferf ''wedi'' ei gadw o hyd, ond nid oes yr un o'r terfyniadau cyflwr ar yr enwau yn bresennol. Erbyn y [[12g]] roedd Saesneg Canol wedi'i datblygu'n llawn, gan integreiddio nodweddion Norseg a Ffrangeg; parhaodd i gael ei siarad tan y newid i Saesneg Modern cynnar tua 1500. 

Mae llenyddiaeth Saesneg canol yn cynnwys ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' gan [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], a ''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]'' [[Thomas Malory|gan Malory]]. Yn y cyfnod Saesneg Canol, mynychodd y defnydd o dafodieithoedd rhanbarthol wrth ysgrifennu, a defnyddiwyd nodweddion tafodieithol hyd yn oed i greu effaith gan awduron fel Chaucer. Nid oedd y Saesneg wedi'i safoni yn y cyfnod hwn.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Horobin|first=Simon|title=Chaucer's Middle English|url=https://opencanterburytales.dsl.lsu.edu/refmideng/|website=The Open Access Companion to the Canterbury Tales|publisher=Louisiana State University|access-date=24 November 2019|quote=The only appearances of their and them in Chaucer's works are in the Reeve's Tale, where they form part of the Northern dialect spoken by the two Cambridge students, Aleyn and John, demonstrating that at this time they were still perceived to be Northernisms|archivedate=3 December 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203092713/https://opencanterburytales.dsl.lsu.edu/refmideng/}}</ref>

=== Saesneg Modern Cynnar ===
[[Delwedd:Great_Vowel_Shift2a.svg|de|bawd| Cynrychioliad graffig o’r [[:en:Great_Vowel_Shift|Great Vowel Shift]], yn dangos sut y symudodd ynganiad y llafariaid hir yn raddol, gyda’r llafariaid uchel i: ac u: yn torri’n ddeuseiniaid a’r llafariaid isaf bob un yn symud eu hynganiad i fyny un lefel]]
Y cyfnod nesaf yn hanes y Saesneg oedd Saesneg Modern Cynnar (1500–1700). Nodweddid Saesneg Modern Cynnar gan y [[Symudiad llafariad gwych|''Great Vowel Shift'']] (Symudiad Mawr y Llafariaid; 1350–1700), symleiddio ffurfiannol, a safoni ieithyddol.

Yn y Symudiad Mawr y Llafariaid symudodd y pwyslais ar lafariaid Saesneg Canol. Roedd yn bwyslais cyfresol, sy'n golygu bod pob symudiad wedi sbarduno newid dilynol yn y system llafariaid. Codwyd y llafariaid canol ac agored, a thorrwyd y llafariaid caeedig yn [[Deusain|ddeuseiniaid]]. Er enghraifft, ynganwyd y gair Saesneg ''bite'' (hy ''brathiad'') yn wreiddiol fel y gair ''beet'' (hy ''brathiad'') heddiw, ac ynganwyd yr ail lafariad yn y gair ''about'' (hy ''am'') fel y gair ''boot'' (hy ''esgid'') heddiw. Mae Symudiad Mawr y Llafariaid yn esbonio llawer o anghysondebau mewn sillafu gan fod Saesneg yn cadw llawer o sillafiadau'r Saesneg Canol, ac mae hefyd yn esbonio pam mae ynganiadau llafariaid Saesneg yn wahanol iawn i'r un llythrennau mewn ieithoedd eraill.{{Sfn|Lass|2000}}{{Sfn|Görlach|1991}}

Dechreuodd Saeson symud o'r cytiau moch, i'r llysoedd yn ystod teyrnasiad [[Harri V, brenin Lloegr|Harri V]]. Tua 1430, dechreuodd Llys y Siawnsri yn [[Westminster|San Steffan]] ddefnyddio'r Saesneg yn ei ddogfennau swyddogol, a datblygodd ffurf safonol newydd ar Saesneg Canol, a elwid yn [[Saesneg Canol|Chancery Standard]], o dafodieithoedd Llundain a Dwyrain Canolbarth Lloegr. Ym 1476, cyflwynodd [[William Caxton]] y [[Gwasg argraffu|wasg argraffu]] i Loegr a dechreuodd gyhoeddi'r llyfrau printiedig cyntaf yn Llundain, gan ehangu dylanwad y ffurf hon ar y Saesneg.{{Sfn|Nevalainen|Tieken-Boon van Ostade|2006|pages=274–79}} Mae llenyddiaeth o'r cyfnod Modern Cynnar yn cynnwys gweithiau [[William Shakespeare]] a chyfieithiad o'r Beibl a gomisiynwyd gan y [[Iago, brenin Lloegr (I) a'r Alban (VI)|Brenin Iago I]]. Hyd yn oed ar ôl y [[Symudiad Mawr y Llafariaid]] roedd yr iaith yn dal i swnio'n wahanol i Saesneg Modern: er enghraifft, roedd y clystyrau cytseiniaid /kn ɡn sw/ yn ''knight'', ''gnat'', a ''sword'' yn dal i gael eu ynganu. Mae llawer o'r nodweddion gramadegol y gallai darllenydd modern o Shakespeare eu canfod yn hynod neu hynafol yn cynrychioli nodweddion unigryw Saesneg Modern Cynnar.{{Sfn|Cercignani|1981}}

=== Lledaeniad Saesneg Modern ===
Erbyn diwedd y [[18fed ganrif|18g]], roedd yr [[Yr Ymerodraeth Brydeinig|Ymerodraeth Brydeinig]] wedi lledaenu Saesneg trwy ei threfedigaethau a'i goruchafiaeth daear-wleidyddol. Cyfrannodd masnach, gwyddoniaeth a thechnoleg, diplomyddiaeth, celf, ac addysg ffurfiol oll at y Saesneg fel yr iaith wirioneddol fyd-eang gyntaf. Roedd Saesneg hefyd yn hwyluso cyfathrebu rhyngwladol byd-eang.{{Sfn|How English evolved into a global language|2010}}{{Sfn|The Routes of English}} Parhaodd Lloegr i ffurfio trefedigaethau newydd, ac yn ddiweddarach datblygodd y rhain eu normau eu hunain ar gyfer lleferydd ac ysgrifennu. Mabwysiadwyd Saesneg mewn rhannau o Ogledd America, rhannau o Affrica, Awstralasia, a llawer o ranbarthau eraill. Pan gawsant annibyniaeth wleidyddol, dewisodd rhai o’r cenhedloedd newydd annibynnol a chanddynt ieithoedd brodorol lluosog barhau i ddefnyddio’r Saesneg fel yr iaith swyddogol er mwyn osgoi’r anawsterau gwleidyddol ac eraill sy’n gynhenid i hyrwyddo unrhyw un iaith frodorol uwchlaw’r lleill.{{Sfn|Romaine|2006}}{{Sfn|Mufwene|2006}}{{Sfn|Northrup|2013}} Yn yr 20g mae dylanwad economaidd a diwylliannol cynyddol yr Unol Daleithiau a'i statws fel [[Uwchbwer|archbwer]] yn dilyn yr Ail Ryfel Byd wedi, ynghyd â darlledu byd-eang yn Saesneg gan y [[BBC]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Baker|first=Colin|title=Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC|date=1998|page=311|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=978-1-85359-362-8|access-date=27 August 2017}}</ref> a darlledwyr eraill, wedi achosi i'r iaith ymledu ledled y blaned yn gynt o lawer.{{Sfn|Graddol|2006}}{{Sfn|Crystal|2003a}} Erbyn yr 21g, roedd y Saesneg yn cael ei siarad a'i hysgrifennu'n ehangach drwy'r blaned nag y bu unrhyw iaith erioed.{{Sfn|McCrum|MacNeil|Cran|2003}}

Wrth i Saesneg Modern ddatblygu, cyhoeddwyd normau penodol ar gyfer defnydd safonol, a'u lledaenu trwy gyfryngau swyddogol megis addysg gyhoeddus a chyhoeddiadau a noddir gan y wladwriaeth. Yn 1755 cyhoeddodd [[Samuel Johnson]] ei ''A Dictionary of the English Language'', a gyflwynodd sillafiadau safonol geiriau a normau defnydd. Ym 1828, cyhoeddodd Noah Webster yr ''American Dictionary of the English language'' i geisio sefydlu norm ar gyfer siarad ac ysgrifennu Saesneg Americanaidd a oedd yn annibynnol ar y safon Brydeinig. Yng ngwledydd Prydain, roedd nodweddion tafodieithol ansafonol a thafodieithoedd y dosbarth is yn cael eu stigmateiddio fwyfwy, gan arwain at ledaeniad cyflym yr amrywiaethau uchel-ael ymhlith y dosbarthiadau canol.{{Sfn|Romaine|1999}}

== Dosbarthiad daearyddol ==
[[Delwedd:Map_of_English_native_speakers.png|bawd|300x300px| Canran y siaradwyr brodorol Saesneg (2017)]]
Erbyn 2016, roedd 400 miliwn o bobl yn siarad Saesneg fel iaith gyntaf ac 1.1 biliwn yn ei siarad fel ail iaith.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Which countries are best at English as a second language?|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/which-countries-are-best-at-english-as-a-second-language-4d24c8c8-6cf6-4067-a753-4c82b4bc865b|website=World Economic Forum|access-date=29 November 2016|archivedate=25 November 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125144549/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/which-countries-are-best-at-english-as-a-second-language-4d24c8c8-6cf6-4067-a753-4c82b4bc865b/}}</ref> O ran niferoedd, Saesneg yw'r iaith fwyaf.{{Sfn|Crystal|2003b}}

=== Tri chylch o wledydd Saesneg eu hiaith ===
Roedd yr ieithydd Indiaidd Braj Kachru yn gwahaniaethu rhwng gwledydd lle siaredir Saesneg gyda model tri chylch . {{Sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=2}} Yn ei fodel,

* mae gan y gwledydd "cylch mewnol" gymunedau mawr o siaradwyr Saesneg brodorol,
* mae gan wledydd "y cylch allanol" gymunedau bach o siaradwyr Saesneg brodorol ond defnydd eang o'r Saesneg fel ail iaith mewn addysg neu ddarlledu neu at ddibenion swyddogol lleol, a
* gwledydd "y cylch ehangach" yn wledydd lle mae llawer o bobl yn dysgu Saesneg fel iaith dramor.

Seiliodd Kachru ei fodel ar hanes sut y lledaenodd Saesneg mewn gwahanol wledydd, sut mae defnyddwyr yn caffael Saesneg, a'r ystod o ddefnyddiau sydd gan Saesneg ym mhob gwlad. Mae'r tri chylch yn newid dros amser.{{Sfn|Kachru|2006|p=196}}

Ymhlith y gwledydd sydd â chymunedau mawr o siaradwyr Saesneg brodorol (y cylch mewnol) mae Lloegr, yr Unol Daleithiau, Awstralia, Canada, Iwerddon, a Seland Newydd, lle mae'r mwyafrif yn siarad Saesneg, a De Affrica, lle mae lleiafrif sylweddol yn siarad Saesneg. Y gwledydd sydd â’r nifer fwyaf o siaradwyr Saesneg brodorol, mewn trefn ddisgynnol, yw’r [[Unol Daleithiau America|Unol Daleithiau]] (231 o leiaf&nbsp;miliwn),{{Sfn|Ryan|2013|loc=Table 1}} y [[Y Deyrnas Unedig|Deyrnas Unedig]] (60&nbsp;miliwn),{{Sfn|Office for National Statistics|2013|loc=Key Points}}{{Sfn|National Records of Scotland|2013}}{{Sfn|Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency|2012|loc=Table KS207NI: Main Language}} Canada (19&nbsp;miliwn),{{Sfn|Statistics Canada|2014}} [[Awstralia]] (o leiaf 17&nbsp;miliwn),{{Sfn|Australian Bureau of Statistics|2013}} De Affrica (4.8&nbsp;miliwn),{{Sfn|Statistics South Africa|2012|loc=Table 2.5 Population by first language spoken and province (number)}} [[Gweriniaeth Iwerddon|Iwerddon]] (4.2&nbsp;miliwn), a Seland Newydd (3.7&nbsp;miliwn).{{Sfn|Statistics New Zealand|2014}} Yn y gwledydd hyn, mae plant siaradwyr brodorol yn dysgu Saesneg gan eu rhieni, ac mae pobl leol sy'n siarad ieithoedd eraill a mewnfudwyr newydd yn dysgu Saesneg i gyfathrebu yn eu cymdogaethau a'u gweithleoedd.{{Sfn|Bao|2006}} Mae'r gwledydd cylch mewnol yn darparu'r sylfaen i'r Saesneg ymledu i wledydd eraill y byd. {{Sfn|Kachru|2006}}

Mae amcangyfrifon o niferoedd siaradwyr Saesneg ail iaith ac iaith dramor yn amrywio’n fawr o 470&nbsp;miliwn i fwy nag 1&nbsp;biliwn, yn dibynnu ar sut y diffinnir hyfedredd yr iaith.{{Sfn|Crystal|2003b|pp=108–109}} Mae'r ieithydd [[David Crystal]] yn amcangyfrif bod siaradwyr anfrodorol bellach yn fwy na'r siaradwyr brodorol o 3 i 1.{{Sfn|Crystal|2003a}} Ym model tri chylch Kachru, gwledydd fel Ynysoedd y [[Y Philipinau|Philipinau]] yw'r "cylch allanol",{{Sfn|Rubino|2006}} [[Jamaica]],{{Sfn|Patrick|2006a}} India, Pacistan, Singapôr,{{Sfn|Lim|Ansaldo|2006}} [[Maleisia|Malaysia]] a [[Nigeria]]{{Sfn|Connell|2006}}{{Sfn|Schneider|2007}} gyda chyfran llawer llai o siaradwyr brodorol Saesneg ond llawer o ddefnydd o Saesneg fel ail iaith ar gyfer addysg, llywodraeth, neu fusnes domestig, a'i ddefnydd arferol ar gyfer addysgu ysgol a rhyngweithio swyddogol gyda'r llywodraeth.{{Sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008}}

Yn y model tri chylch, mae gwledydd fel Gwlad Pwyl, Tsieina, Brasil, yr Almaen, Japan, Indonesia, yr Aifft, a gwledydd eraill lle mae Saesneg yn cael ei haddysgu fel iaith dramor, yn ffurfio'r "cylch ehangach".{{Sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=4}} Mae'r gwahaniaethau rhwng y Saesneg fel iaith gyntaf, fel ail iaith, ac fel iaith dramor yn aml yn ddadleuol a gallant newid mewn gwledydd penodol dros amser.{{Sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=5}} Er enghraifft, yn yr [[Yr Iseldiroedd|Iseldiroedd]] a rhai gwledydd eraill yn Ewrop, mae gwybodaeth o Saesneg fel ail iaith bron yn gyffredinol, gyda dros 80 y cant o'r boblogaeth yn gallu ei defnyddio,{{Sfn|European Commission|2012}} ac felly defnyddir Saesneg yn rheolaidd i gyfathrebu gyda thramorwyr ac yn aml mewn addysg uwch. Yn y gwledydd hyn, er na ddefnyddir Saesneg ar gyfer busnes y llywodraeth, mae ei defnydd eang yn eu rhoi ar y ffin rhwng y "cylch allanol" a'r "cylch ehangach". Mae Saesneg yn anarferol ymhlith ieithoedd y byd o ran faint o'i defnyddwyr nad ydynt yn siaradwyr brodorol ond yn siarad Saesneg fel ail iaith neu iaith dramor.{{Sfn|Kachru|2006|p=197}}

Mae Saesneg yn iaith lluosog, sy'n golygu nad oes yr un awdurdod cenedlaethol yn gosod y safon ar gyfer defnydd yr iaith.{{Sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008}}{{Sfn|Romaine|1999}}{{Sfn|Baugh|Cable|2002}}{{Sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008}} Yn gyffredinol, mae Saesneg llafar, er enghraifft Saesneg a ddefnyddir mewn darlledu, yn dilyn safonau ynganu cenedlaethol sydd hefyd wedi'u sefydlu gan arfer yn hytrach na thrwy reoliadau llym. Mae darlledwyr rhyngwladol fel arfer yn cael eu hadnabod fel rhai sy'n dod o un wlad yn hytrach nag un arall trwy eu hacenion,{{Sfn|Trudgill|2006}} ond mae sgriptiau darllenwyr newyddion hefyd wedi'u cyfansoddi'n bennaf mewn Saesneg ysgrifenedig safonol rhyngwladol. Mae normau Saesneg ysgrifenedig safonol yn cael eu cynnal gan gonsensws siaradwyr Saesneg addysgedig ledled y byd yn unig, heb unrhyw arolygiaeth gan unrhyw lywodraeth, corff neu sefydliad rhyngwladol.{{Sfn|Ammon|2008}}

=== Saesneg fel iaith fyd-eang ===
Mae'r Saesneg wedi peidio â bod yn "iaith Saesneg" yn yr ystyr o berthyn i bobl ethnig o [[Saeson|Loegr]] yn unig.{{Sfn|Romaine|1999}}{{Sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006}} Mae'r defnydd o Saesneg yn tyfu fesul gwlad yn fewnol ac ar gyfer cyfathrebu rhyngwladol. Mae'r rhan fwyaf o bobl yn dysgu Saesneg am resymau ymarferol yn hytrach nag ideolegol.{{Sfn|Kachru|2006}} Mae llawer o siaradwyr Saesneg yn Affrica wedi dod yn rhan o gymuned iaith "Affro-Sacsonaidd" sy'n uno Affricanwyr o wahanol wledydd.{{Sfn|Mazrui|Mazrui|1998}}

Wrth i ddad-drefedigaethu fynd rhagddo ledled yr Ymerodraeth Brydeinig yn y 1950au a'r 1960au, nid oedd cyn-drefedigaethau'n gwrthod y Saesneg ond yn hytrach yn parhau i'w defnyddio fel gwledydd annibynnol yn gosod eu polisïau iaith eu hunain.{{Sfn|Mufwene|2006}}{{Sfn|Northrup|2013}}{{Sfn|Mesthrie|2010}} Er enghraifft, mae'r farn am y Saesneg ymhlith llawer o Indiaid wedi mynd o'i chysylltu â gwladychiaeth i'w chysylltu â [[Economeg|chynnydd economaidd]], ee mae'r Saesneg yn parhau i fod yn un o ieithoedd swyddogol India.{{Sfn|Annamalai|2006}} Defnyddir Saesneg yn eang hefyd yn y cyfryngau ac mewn llenyddiaeth. Y nifer y llyfrau Saesneg a gyhoeddir yn flynyddol yn India yw'r trydydd mwyaf yn y byd ar ôl yr Unol Daleithiau a'r DU.{{Sfn|Sailaja|2009}} Fodd bynnag, anaml y siaredir Saesneg fel iaith gyntaf, efallai tua dim ond rhyw ddau gant o filoedd o bobl, ac mae llai na 5% o'r boblogaeth yn siarad Saesneg rhugl yn India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indiaspeak: English is our 2nd language – The Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indiaspeak-English-is-our-2nd-language/articleshow/5680962.cms?referral=PM|website=The Times of India|access-date=5 January 2016|archivedate=22 April 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422224021/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indiaspeak-English-is-our-2nd-language/articleshow/5680962.cms?referral=PM}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ihds.umd.edu/IHDS_files/HumanDevelopmentinIndia.pdf|title=Human Development in India: Challenges for a Society in Transition|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=5 January 2016|isbn=978-0-19-806512-8|archive-date=2015-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211124532/http://www.ihds.umd.edu/IHDS_files/HumanDevelopmentinIndia.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Honnodd David Crystal yn 2004, wrth gyfuno siaradwyr brodorol ac anfrodorol, fod gan India bellach fwy o bobl sy'n siarad neu'n deall Saesneg nag unrhyw wlad arall yn y byd,{{Sfn|Crystal|2004}} ond mae nifer y siaradwyr Saesneg yn India yn ansicr iawn, gyda'r mwyafrif o ysgolheigionyn dod i'r casgliad bod gan yr Unol Daleithiau fwy o ''siaradwyr'' Saesneg o hyd nag India.{{Sfn|Graddol|2010}}

Ystyrir Saesneg modern, a ddisgrifir weithiau fel y [[lingua franca]] byd-eang cyntaf,{{Sfn|Graddol|2006}}{{Sfn|Meierkord|2006}} hefyd fel iaith gynta'r byd cyfan.{{Sfn|Brutt-Griffler|2006}}{{Sfn|Northrup|2013}} Saesneg yw'r iaith a ddefnyddir amlaf yn y byd mewn cyhoeddi papurau newydd, cyhoeddi llyfrau, telathrebu rhyngwladol, cyhoeddi gwyddonol, masnach ryngwladol, adloniant torfol, a diplomyddiaeth.{{Sfn|Northrup|2013}} Saesneg, trwy gytundeb rhyngwladol, yw'r sail ar gyfer yr ieithoedd naturiol rheoledig gofynnol{{Sfn|Wojcik|2006}} Seaspeak ac Airspeak, a ddefnyddir fel ieithoedd rhyngwladol morwriaeth{{Sfn|International Maritime Organization|2011}} a hedfan.{{Sfn|International Civil Aviation Organization|2011}} Roedd Saesneg yn arfer bod yn gyfartal â Ffrangeg ac Almaeneg mewn ymchwil wyddonol, ond bellach mae'n dominyddu'r maes hwn.{{Sfn|Gordin|2015}} Cyflawnodd gydraddoldeb â [[Ffrangeg]] fel iaith diplomyddiaeth yn nhrafodaethau [[Cytundeb Versailles]] yn 1919, yn eironig, gyda'r Cymro Cymraeg Lloyd George yn arwain y trafodaethau ar ran 'Prydain'.{{Sfn|Phillipson|2004}} Erbyn sefydlu'r [[Y Cenhedloedd Unedig|Cenhedloedd Unedig]] ar ddiwedd yr [[Yr Ail Ryfel Byd|Ail Ryfel Byd]], roedd Saesneg wedi dod yn flaenllaw{{Sfn|ConradRubal-Lopez|1996}} ac mae bellach yn brif iaith fyd-eang diplomyddiaeth a chysylltiadau rhyngwladol.{{Sfn|Richter|2012}} Mae'n un o chwe iaith swyddogol y Cenhedloedd Unedig. {{Sfn|United Nations|2008}} Mae llawer o sefydliadau rhyngwladol byd-eang eraill, gan gynnwys y [[Y Pwyllgor Olympaidd Rhyngwladol|Pwyllgor Olympaidd Rhyngwladol]], yn nodi Saesneg fel iaith waith neu iaith swyddogol y sefydliad.
[[Delwedd:Countries_in_which_English_Language_is_a_Mandatory_or_an_Optional_Subject.svg|canol|bawd|upright=3| '''Gwledydd lle mae'r Saesneg yn Bwnc Gorfodol (glas) neu Opsiynol (melyn)'''
]]

== Ffonoleg ==
Mae [[seineg]] a [[ffonoleg]] yr iaith Saesneg yn amrywio o'r naill dafodiaith i'r llall ac mae amrywiad ffonolegol yn effeithio ar y rhestr o [[Ffonem|ffonemau]] (hy seiniau lleferydd sy'n gwahaniaethu ystyr), ac mae amrywiad ffonetig yn cynnwys gwahaniaethau yn ynganiad y ffonemau.{{Sfn|Wolfram|2006|pp=334–335}} Mae'r trosolwg hwn yn bennaf yn disgrifio [[Iaith safonol|ynganiadau safonol]] y [[Y Deyrnas Unedig|Deyrnas Unedig]] a'r [[Unol Daleithiau America|Unol Daleithiau]]: ''Received Pronunciation'' (RP) a ''General American'' (GA).

==Llyfryddiaeth==
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-->* {{cite book |last=Barry |first=Michael V. |chapter=English in Ireland |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=84–134 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
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-->* {{cite web |last1=Bosworth |first1=Joseph |author-link1=Joseph Bosworth |last2=Toller |first2=T. Northcote |title=Engla land |work=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] (Online) |date=1921 |url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 |access-date=6 March 2015 |publisher=[[Charles University]] |archive-date=28 January 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6E0awhSJ9?url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 |url-status=live }}
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-->* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Alistair |author-link=Alistair Campbell (academic) |title=Old English Grammar |url=https://archive.org/details/oldenglishgramma00camp |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=1959 |isbn=978-0-19-811943-2 }}
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-->* {{cite book |last=Cassidy |first=Frederic G. |chapter=Geographical Variation of English in the United States |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=177–210 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
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-->* {{cite book |last=Cercignani |first=Fausto |title=Shakespeare's works and Elizabethan pronunciation |date=1981 |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_JBlAAAAMAAJ |access-date=14 March 2015 |jstor=3728688 |isbn=978-0-19-811937-1 |archive-date=19 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319220854/http://books.google.com/books?id=_JBlAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
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-->* {{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Beverley |last2=Mees |first2=Inger M. |year=2003 |orig-date=First published 1981 |title=The Phonetics of English and Dutch |edition=5th |place=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-10340-5 }}
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-->* {{cite book |last1=Conrad |first1=Andrew W. |last2=Rubal-Lopez |first2=Alma |title=Post-Imperial English: Status Change in Former British and American Colonies, 1940–1990 |date=1996 |publisher=de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-087218-7 |url=http://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/143492 |access-date=2 April 2015 |page=261 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924071825/http://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/143492 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Cruttenden |first=Alan |date=2014 |title=Gimson's Pronunciation of English |edition=8th |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-4441-8309-2 }}
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-->* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |author-link=David Crystal |title=Language Death |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2002 |url=http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139106856 |access-date=25 February 2015 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139106856 |isbn=978-1-139-10685-6 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402160417/http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139106856 |url-status=live }}
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-->* {{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=English as a Global Language |author-link=David Crystal |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=69 |date=2003a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6jPAKxTHRYC |access-date=4 February 2015 |isbn=978-0-521-53032-3 |archive-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511155056/https://books.google.com/books?id=d6jPAKxTHRYC |url-status=live }}
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-->* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language |author-link=David Crystal |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003b |isbn=978-0-521-53033-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3b3ngEACAAJ |access-date=4 February 2015 |archive-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511152613/https://books.google.com/books?id=A3b3ngEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
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-->* {{cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=Subcontinent Raises Its Voice |year=2004 |url=http://education.guardian.co.uk/tefl/story/0,,1355064,00.html |access-date=4 February 2015 |newspaper=The Guardian |archive-date=17 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417171455/http://education.guardian.co.uk/tefl/story/0,,1355064,00.html |url-status=live }}
<!-- Crystal2006 
-->* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |chapter=Chapter 9: English worldwide |title=A History of the English Language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-511-16893-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n435 420]–439 }}
<!-- DanielsBright1996 
-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=Daniels |editor1-first=Peter T. |editor2-last=Bright |editor2-first=William |title=The World's Writing Systems |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=621jAAAAMAAJ |access-date=23 February 2015 |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507993-7 |archive-date=19 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219122333/https://books.google.com/books?id=621jAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- Dehaene2009 
-->* {{cite book |last=Dehaene |first=Stanislas |title=Reading in the Brain: The Science and Evolution of a Human Invention |date=2009 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-670-02110-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Z2hjwEACAAJ |access-date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905181702/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Z2hjwEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- DenisonHogg2006 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Denison |first1=David |last2=Hogg |first2=Richard M. |chapter=Overview |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n45 30]–31 }}
<!-- DenningKesslerLeben2007 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Denning |first1=Keith |last2=Kessler |first2=Brett |last3=Leben |first3=William Ronald |title=English Vocabulary Elements |date=17 February 2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-516803-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jz76l9RAccQC |access-date=25 February 2015 |archive-date=20 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320004752/http://books.google.com/books?id=jz76l9RAccQC |url-status=live }}
<!-- UKMinorityProtectionReport2007 author is Department for Communities and Local Government 
-->* {{cite report |author=Department for Communities and Local Government (United Kingdom) |date=27 February 2007 |title=Second Report submitted by the United Kingdom pursuant to article 25, paragraph 1 of the framework convention for the protection of national minorities |url=https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/minorities/3_FCNMdocs/PDF_2nd_SR_UK_en.pdf |publisher=Council of Europe |docket=ACFC/SR/II(2007)003 rev<sup>1</sup> |access-date=6 March 2015 |ref={{harvid|UKMinorityProtectionReport|2007}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924020227/http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/minorities/3_FCNMdocs/PDF_2nd_SR_UK_en.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}
<!-- Deumert2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Deumert |first=A. |title=Migration and Language |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542012943 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01294-3 |pages=129–133 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025549/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542012943 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Dixon 1982
-->* {{cite journal |last=Dixon|first= R. M. W. |date=1982 |title=The grammar of English phrasal verbs |journal=Australian Journal of Linguistics |volume=2 |issue=1|doi=10.1080/07268608208599280 |pages=1–42}}
<!-- Donoghue2008 
-->* {{cite book |last=Donoghue |first=D. |title=Old English Literature: A Short Introduction |publisher=Wiley |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-631-23486-9 |doi=10.1002/9780470776025 |editor1-last=Donoghue |editor1-first=Daniel }}
<!-- Durrell2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Durrell |first=M. |title=Germanic Languages |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542021891 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/02189-1 |pages=53–55 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924145318/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542021891 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Eagleson1982 
-->* {{cite book |last=Eagleson |first=Robert D. |chapter=English in Australia and New Zealand |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=415–438 |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press }}
<!-- Ethnologue 
-->* {{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size |title=Summary by language size |access-date=10 February 2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |ref={{harvid|Ethnologue|2010}} |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226040016/https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size |url-status=live }}
<!-- EuropeanCommission2012 
-->* {{cite report |author=European Commission |title=Special Eurobarometer 386: Europeans and Their Languages |date=June 2012 |series=Eurobarometer Special Surveys |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |access-date=12 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106183351/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2016 }}
<!--FasoldConnor-Linton2014 
-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=Fasold |editor1-first=Ralph W. |editor2-last=Connor-Linton |editor2-first=Jeffrey |title=An Introduction to Language and Linguistics |edition=Second |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-06185-5 }}
<!-- Fischer-van der Wurff2006 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Olga |last2=van der Wurff |first2=Wim |chapter=Chapter 3: Syntax |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n124 109]–198 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Flemming |first1=Edward |last2=Johnson |first2=Stephanie |year=2007 |title=''Rosa's roses'': reduced vowels in American English |journal=[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association]] |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=83–96 |doi=10.1017/S0025100306002817 |url=http://web.mit.edu/flemming/www/paper/rosasroses.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.536.1989 |s2cid=145535175 |access-date=2 September 2018 |archive-date=19 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919182406/http://web.mit.edu/flemming/www/paper/rosasroses.pdf |url-status=live }}
<!-- Giegerich1992 
-->* {{cite book |title=English Phonology: An Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/englishphonology0000gieg |first=Heinz J. |last=Giegerich |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-33603-1 |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics }}
<!-- Gneuss2013 
-->* {{cite book |last=Gneuss |first=Helmut |chapter=Chapter 2: The Old English Language |editor1-last=Godden |editor1-first=Malcolm |editor2-last=Lapidge |editor2-first=Michael |date=2013 |title=The Cambridge companion to Old English literature |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000malc |edition=Second |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-15402-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000malc/page/19 19]–49 }}
<!-- Görlach1991 
-->* {{cite book |last=Görlach |first=Manfred |title=Introduction to Early Modern English |date=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-32529-5 }}
<!-- Gordin2015 
-->* {{cite web |last=Gordin |first=Michael D. |title=Absolute English |url=http://aeon.co/magazine/science/how-did-science-come-to-speak-only-english/ |access-date=16 February 2015 |work=[[Aeon (digital magazine)|Aeon]] |date=4 February 2015 |archive-date=7 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207162247/http://aeon.co/magazine/science/how-did-science-come-to-speak-only-english/ |url-status=dead }}
<!-- GordonCampbellHay et al.2004 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Campbell |first2= Lyle |last3=Hay |first3=Jennifer |last4=Maclagan |first4= Margaret |last5=Sudbury |first5=Angela |last6=Trudgill |first6=Peter |date=2004 |title=New Zealand English: its origins and evolution|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-10895-9 |series=Studies in English Language |ref={{harvid|Gordon|Campbell|Hay et al.|2004}}}}
<!-- Gottlieb2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Gottlieb |first=H. |title=Linguistic Influence |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542044552 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04455-2 |pages=196–206 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025550/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542044552 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Graddol2006 
-->* {{cite book |last=Graddol |first=David |title=English Next: Why global English may mean the end of 'English as a Foreign Language' |author-link=David Graddol |url=http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next.pdf |access-date=7 February 2015 |date=2006 |publisher=The British Council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212042939/http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2015 }}
**{{cite journal |author=Lalitha Eapen |date=January 2007 |title=English Next |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_elt-journal_2007-01_61_1/page/81 |journal=ELT Journal |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=81–83 |doi=10.1093/elt/ccl050 |type=Review}} 
<!-- Graddol2010 
-->* {{cite book |last=Graddol |first=David |title=English Next India: The future of English in India |author-link=David Graddol |url=http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next-india-2010.pdf |access-date=7 February 2015 |date=2010 |publisher=The British Council |isbn=978-0-86355-627-2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212042654/http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next-india-2010.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2015 }}
**{{cite journal |author=Rama Mathew |author2=Shefali Srivastava |date=July 2011 |title=English Next India: The Future of English in India |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_elt-journal_2011-07_65_3/page/356 |journal=ELT Journal |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=356–359 |doi=10.1093/elt/ccr034 |type=Review}}
<!-- GraddolLeithSwann et al.2007 
-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=Graddol |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Leith |editor2-first=Dick |editor3-last=Swann |editor3-first=Joan |editor4-last=Rhys |editor4-first=Martin |editor5-last=Gillen |editor5-first=Julia |title=Changing English |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415376792/ |access-date=11 February 2015 |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-37679-2 |ref={{harvid|Graddol|Leith|Swann et al.|2007}} |archive-date=24 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224062821/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415376792/ |url-status=live }}
<!--Green2002
-->* {{cite book |last=Green |first=Lisa J. |date=2002 |title=African American English: a linguistic introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521891387 |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
<!-- Greenbaum 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Greenbaum |first1=S. |last2=Nelson |first2=G. |title=An introduction to English grammar |date=2002 |edition=Second |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-43741-8 }}
<!-- Halliday & Hasan 1976
-->* {{cite book|last1=Halliday|first1=M. A. K.|last2=Hasan|first2=Ruqaiya|date=1976|title=Cohesion in English|publisher=Pearson Education ltd.}}
<!-- HancockAngogo1982 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Hancock |first1=Ian F. |last2=Angogo |first2=Rachel |chapter=English in East Africa |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 |pages=415–438 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press }}
<!-- Harbert2006 
-->* {{cite book |last=Harbert |first=Wayne |title=The Germanic Languages |url=http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9780511755071 |access-date=26 February 2015 |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-01511-0 |series=Cambridge Language Surveys |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511755071 |jstor=40492966 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402120615/http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9780511755071 |url-status=live }}
<!-- Hickey 2007 
-->* {{cite book |last=Hickey |first=R. |date=2007 |title=Irish English: History and present-day forms |url=https://archive.org/details/irishenglishhist0000hick |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
<!-- Hickey 2005 
-->* {{cite book|editor-last=Hickey|editor-first=R. |date=2005|title=Legacies of colonial English: Studies in transported dialects|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
<!-- Hogg1992 
-->* {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Richard M. |s2cid=161881054 |chapter=Chapter 3: Phonology and Morphology |editor-last=Hogg |editor-first=Richard M. |title=The Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=1: The Beginnings to 1066 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-26474-7 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521264747 |pages=67–168 }}
<!-- Hogg2006 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Hogg |first1=Richard M. |chapter=Chapter7: English in Britain |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n375 360]–61 }}
<!--How English evolved into a global language
-->* {{cite web |title=How English evolved into a global language |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753 |date=20 December 2010 |publisher=BBC |access-date=9 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|How English evolved into a global language|2010}} |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925173407/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753 |url-status=live }}
<!-- HowManyWords2015 
-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=How many words are there in the English language? |work=Oxford Dictionaries Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2015 |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords |access-date=2 April 2015 |quote='''How many words are there in the English language?''' There is no single sensible answer to this question. It's impossible to count the number of words in a language, because it's so hard to decide what actually counts as a word. |ref={{harvid|HowManyWords|2015}} |archive-date=30 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130011051/http://oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords |url-status=live }}
<!-- HuddlestonPullum2002 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney |last2=Pullum |first2=Geoffrey K. |title=The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-43146-0 |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/grammar-and-syntax/cambridge-grammar-english-language |access-date=10 February 2015 |archive-date=12 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212000801/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/grammar-and-syntax/cambridge-grammar-english-language |url-status=live }}
**{{cite web |author= Peter W. Culicover |title=The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |website=The Ohio State University |url=http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~culicove/Publications/CGEL_Review.pdf}}
<!-- Hughes & Trudgill 1996 
-->* {{cite book |first1=Arthur |last1=Hughes |last2=Trudgill |first2=Peter |date=1996 |title=English Accents and Dialects |edition=3rd |publisher= Arnold Publishers }}
<!-- International Civil Aviation Organization 
-->* {{cite web |author=International Civil Aviation Organization |title=Personnel Licensing FAQ |url=http://www.icao.int/safety/airnavigation/pages/peltrgfaq.aspx#anchor14 |access-date=16 December 2014 |publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization – Air Navigation Bureau |date=2011 |at=In which languages does a licence holder need to demonstrate proficiency? |quote=Controllers working on stations serving designated airports and routes used by international air services shall demonstrate language proficiency in English as well as in any other language(s) used by the station on the ground. |archive-date=20 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220003044/http://www.icao.int/safety/airnavigation/pages/peltrgfaq.aspx#anchor14 |url-status=live }}
<!-- International Maritime Organization 
-->* {{cite web |author=International Maritime Organization |title=IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases |date=2011 |url=http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-date=3 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003233938/http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx |url-status=live }}
<!-- International Phonetics Association 1999
-->* {{Cite book |last=International Phonetic Association |author-link=International Phonetic Association |date=1999 |title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofintern0000inte |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-65236-0 }}
<!-- Jambor2007 
-->* {{cite journal |last=Jambor |first=Paul Z. |title=English Language Imperialism: Points of View |journal=Journal of English as an International Language |date=2007 |volume=2 |pages=103–123 }}
<!-- Jespersen 2007 
-->* {{cite book |last=Jespersen |first=Otto |title=The Philosophy of Grammar |chapter=Case: The number of English cases |publisher=Routledge |orig-date=1924 |date=2007 }}
<!-- Kachru2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Kachru |first=B. |title=English: World Englishes |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006453 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00645-3 |pages=195–202 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025619/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006453 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Kastovsky2006 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Kastovsky |first1=Dieter |chapter=Chapter 4: Vocabulary |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n214 199]–270 }}
<!-- KönigvanderAuwera1994 
-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=König |editor1-first=Ekkehard |editor2-last=van der Auwera |editor2-first=Johan |title=The Germanic Languages |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28079-2 |series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |access-date=26 February 2015 |jstor=4176538 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101046/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |url-status=live }} The survey of the Germanic branch languages includes chapters by Winfred P. Lehmann, [[Ans van Kemenade]], John Ole Askedal, Erik Andersson, Neil Jacobs, Silke Van Ness, and Suzanne Romaine.
<!-- König 1994 
-->* {{cite book |last=König |first=Ekkehard |chapter=17. English |pages=532–562 |editor1-last=König |editor1-first=Ekkehard |editor2-last=van der Auwera |editor2-first=Johan |title=The Germanic Languages |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28079-2 |series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions |chapter-url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |access-date=26 February 2015 |jstor=4176538 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101046/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |url-status=live }}
<!-- Labov 1972 
-->* {{cite book |last=Labov |first=W. |date=1972 |title=Sociolinguistic patterns |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |chapter= 13. The Social Stratification of (R) in New York City Department Stores }}
<!-- Labov 2012 
-->* {{cite book |last=Labov |first=W. |date=2012|title=Dialect Diversity in America: The Politics of Language Change|url=https://archive.org/details/dialectdiversity0000labo |publisher=University of Virginia Press |chapter= 1. About Language and Language Change }}
<!-- LabovAshBoberg2006 named reference was ANAE 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Labov |first1=William |author-link1=William Labov |last2=Ash |first2=Sharon |last3=Boberg |first3=Charles |date=2006 |title=The Atlas of North American English |location=Berlin |publisher=de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-016746-7 |url=http://www.degruyter.com/view/product/178229?rskey=eUyN34&result=2 |access-date=2 April 2015 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924044744/http://www.degruyter.com/view/product/178229?rskey=eUyN34&result=2 |url-status=live }}
<!-- Lanham 1982 
-->* {{cite book |last=Lanham |first=L. W. |chapter=English in South Africa |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=324–352 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!--Lass 1992 
-->* {{cite book |last=Lass |first=Roger |chapter=2. Phonology and Morphology |editor1-last=Blake |editor1-first=Norman |title=Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=II: 1066–1476 |pages=23–154 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 }}
<!-- Lass2000 
-->* {{cite book |last=Lass |first=Roger |chapter=Chapter 3: Phonology and Morphology |editor-first=Roger |editor-last=Lass |title=The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III: 1476–1776 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |date=2000 |pages=56–186 }}
<!-- Lass 2002
-->* {{citation |last=Lass |first=Roger |chapter=South African English |editor-last=Mesthrie |editor-first=Rajend |date=2002 |title=Language in South Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79105-2}}
<!-- Lass2006 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Lass |first1=Roger |chapter=Chapter 2: Phonology and Morphology |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n61 46]–47 }}
<!-- Lawler2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Lawler |first=J. |title=Punctuation |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045739 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04573-9 |pages=290–291 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025558/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045739 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Lawton 1982 
-->* {{cite book |last=Lawton |first=David L. |chapter=English in the Caribbean |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=251–280 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Leech 2006 
-->* {{cite book |last=Leech |first=G. N. |date=2006 |title=A glossary of English grammar |url=https://archive.org/details/glossaryofenglis0000leec |publisher=Edinburgh University Press }}
<!-- LeechHundtMairSmith2009 
-->* {{cite book |url=http://english.fullerton.edu/publications/clnarchives/2012winter/angus-chng%20contemp_eng.pdf |last1=Leech |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Hundt |first2=Marianne |last3=Mair |first3=Christian |last4=Smith |first4=Nicholas |title=Change in contemporary English: a grammatical study |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-86722-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402140536/http://english.fullerton.edu/publications/clnarchives/2012winter/angus-chng%20contemp_eng.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2015 |access-date=22 September 2016 |url-status=live }}
**{{cite periodical |author=Robert D. Angus |date=Winter 2012 |title=LEECH, L., M. HUNDT, C. MAIR & N. SMITH. ''Change in contemporary English: A grammatical study'' |periodical=California Linguistic Notes |volume=XXXVII |issue=1 |url=http://english.fullerton.edu/publications/clnarchives/2012winter/angus-chng%20contemp_eng.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402140536/http://english.fullerton.edu/publications/clnarchives/2012winter/angus-chng%20contemp_eng.pdf |archive-date=2015-04-02}}
<!-- LevineCrocket1966 
-->* {{cite journal |last1=Levine |first1=L. |last2=Crockett |first2=H. J. |date=1966 |title=Speech Variation in a Piedmont Community: Postvocalic r*|journal=Sociological Inquiry |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=204–226 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-682x.1966.tb00625.x}}
<!-- Li2003 
-->* {{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=David C. S. |title=Between English and Esperanto: what does it take to be a world language? |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |volume=2003 |issue=164 |pages=33–63 |date=2003 |issn=0165-2516 |doi=10.1515/ijsl.2003.055 }}
<!-- LimAnsaldo2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Lim |first1=L. |last2=Ansaldo |first2=U. |title=Singapore: Language Situation |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017016 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01701-6 |pages=387–389 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025540/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017016 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Maclagan 2010 
-->* {{cite book |last=Maclagan |first=Margaret |chapter=Chapter 8: The English(es) of New Zealand |editor-last=Kirkpatrick |editor-first=Andy |date=2010 |title=The Routledge handbook of world Englishes |url=https://archive.org/details/routledgehandboo00kirk |url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/routledgehandboo00kirk/page/n173 151]–164 |isbn=978-0-203-84932-3}}
**{{cite web |author=Dragana Šurkalović |date=July 2, 2011 |title=Review of The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes |website=Linguist List |url=https://linguistlist.org/issues/22/22-2735/}}
<!--MacMahon 2006 
-->* {{cite book |last=MacMahon |first=M. K. |date=2006 |chapter=16. English Phonetics |editor1=Bas Aarts |editor2=April McMahon |title=The Handbook of English Linguistics |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookenglishl00mcma |url-access=limited |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookenglishl00mcma/page/n372 359]–382 |isbn=9781405113823 }}
<!-- Macquarie Dictionary2015 
-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |url=https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/ |title=Macquarie Dictionary |website=Australia's National Dictionary & Thesaurus Online &#124; Macquarie Dictionary |date=2015 |publisher=Macmillan Publishers Group Australia |access-date=15 February 2015 |url-access=registration |ref={{harvid|Macquarie Dictionary|2015}} |archive-date=21 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721141547/https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/ |url-status=live }}
<!-- Mair & Leech 2006 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Mair |first1=C. |last2=Leech |first2=G. |date=2006 |chapter=14 Current Changes in English Syntax |title=The handbook of English linguistics }}
<!-- Mair 2006
-->* {{cite book |last=Mair |first=Christian |date=2006 |title=Twentieth-century English: History, variation and standardization |url=https://archive.org/details/twentiethcentury0000mair |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
<!-- MazruiMazrui1998 was refMazrui1998 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Mazrui |first1=Ali A. |last2=Mazrui |first2=Alamin |title=The Power of Babel: Language and Governance in the African Experience |date=1998 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-51429-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lQTPxdYx8kC |access-date=15 February 2015 |archive-date=19 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319232935/http://books.google.com/books?id=6lQTPxdYx8kC |url-status=live }}
<!-- McArthur1992 
-->* {{cite book |editor-last=McArthur |editor-first=Tom |title=The Oxford Companion to the English Language |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-19-214183-5 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800619.001.0001 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00mcar }}
<!-- McCrumMacNeilCran2003 
-->* {{Cite book |last1=McCrum |first1=Robert |last2=MacNeil |first2=Robert |last3=Cran |first3=William |title=The Story of English |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofenglish0000mccr_c8l9 |location=London |date=2003 |edition=Third Revised |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-200231-5 }}
<!-- McGuinness1997 
-->* {{cite book |last=McGuinness |first=Diane |title=Why Our Children Can't Read, and what We Can Do about it: A Scientific Revolution in Reading |author-link=Diane McGuinness |date=1997 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-83161-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-q02ZBKh3wC |access-date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905182842/https://books.google.com/books?id=F-q02ZBKh3wC |url-status=live }} 
<!-- Meierkord2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Meierkord |first=C. |title=Lingua Francas as Second Languages |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006416 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00641-6 |pages=163–171 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025639/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006416 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- MerriamWebster2015 
-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=English |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=26 February 2015 |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/English |access-date=26 February 2015 |ref={{harvid|Merriam Webster|2015}} |archive-date=25 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325140932/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/english |url-status=live }}
<!-- Methrie2006 
-->* {{cite journal |last=Mesthrie |first=Rajend |title=New Englishes and the native speaker debate |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language-sciences_2010-11_32_6/page/594 |journal=Language Sciences |date=2010 |issn=0388-0001 |doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2010.08.002 |pages=594–601 |volume=32|issue=6 }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Miller 2002 
-->* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Jim |date=2002 |title=An Introduction to English Syntax |publisher=Edinburgh University Press }}
<!-- Montgomery 
-->* {{cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=M. |date=1993 |title=The Southern Accent—Alive and Well |journal=Southern Cultures |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=47–64 |doi=10.1353/scu.1993.0006 |s2cid=143984864 }}
<!-- Mountford2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Mountford |first=J. |title=English Spelling: Rationale |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050185 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05018-5 |pages=156–159 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025550/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050185 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Mufwene2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Mufwene |first=S. S. |title=Language Spread |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542012918 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01291-8 |pages=613–616 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025600/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542012918 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Nation2001 needs more verification 
-->* {{Cite book |last=Nation |first=I. S. P. |title=Learning Vocabulary in Another Language |author-link=Paul Nation |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sKqx8k8gYTkC |access-date=4 February 2015 |page=477 |isbn=978-0-521-80498-1 |archive-date=20 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320010511/http://books.google.com/books?id=sKqx8k8gYTkC |url-status=live }}
<!-- National Records of Scotland2013 official census data for Scotland 
-->* {{cite web |author=National Records of Scotland |title=Census 2011: Release 2A |series=Scotland's Census 2011 |date=26 September 2013 |url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/news/census-2011-release-2a |access-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402152137/http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/news/census-2011-release-2a |url-status=live }}
<!-- Neijt2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Neijt |first=A. |title=Spelling Reform |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045740 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04574-0 |pages=68–71 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025639/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045740 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- NevalainenTieken-Boon van Ostade2006 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Nevalainen |first1=Terttu |last2=Tieken-Boon van Ostade |first2=Ingrid |chapter=Chapter 5: Standardization |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 }}
<!-- Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency2012 
-->* {{cite web |author=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency |title=Census 2011: Key Statistics for Northern Ireland December 2012 |periodical=Statistics Bulletin |date=2012 |url=http://www.nisra.gov.uk/Census/key_report_2011.pdf |access-date=16 December 2014 |at=Table KS207NI: Main Language |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224033625/http://www.nisra.gov.uk/Census/key_report_2011.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2012 }}
<!-- Northrup2013 
-->* {{cite book |last=Northrup |first=David |title=How English Became the Global Language |date=2013 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-30306-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YPAlPeB6IvQC |access-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905190712/https://books.google.com/books?id=YPAlPeB6IvQC |url-status=live }}
<!-- O'Dwyer 2006
-->* {{cite book |first=Bernard |last=O'Dwyer |title= Modern English Structures, second edition: Form, Function, and Position |publisher=Broadview Press |date=2006 }}
<!-- Office for National Statistics official census figures for England and Wales 
-->* {{cite web |author=Office for National Statistics |title=Language in England and Wales, 2011 |date=4 March 2013 |periodical=2011 Census Analysis |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/language-in-england-and-wales-2011/rpt---language-in-england-and-wales--2011.html |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115009/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/language-in-england-and-wales-2011/rpt---language-in-england-and-wales--2011.html |url-status=live }}
<!-- OxfordLearner'sDictionary 
-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Oxford Learner's Dictionaries |url=http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/ |access-date=25 February 2015 |publisher=Oxford |ref={{harvid|Oxford Learner's Dictionary|2015}} |archive-date=9 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209040312/http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/ |url-status=live }}
<!-- Patrick2006aJamaica 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Patrick |first=P. L. |title=Jamaica: Language Situation |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006a |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017600 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01760-0 |pages=88–90 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025554/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017600 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Patrick2006bAAVE 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Patrick |first=P. L. |title=English, African-American Vernacular |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006b |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050926 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05092-6 |pages=159–163 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025630/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050926 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Payne & Huddleston 2002 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Payne |last2=Huddleston |first1=John |first2=Rodney |chapter=5. Nouns and noun phrases |editor1-last=Huddleston |editor2-last=Pullum |editor1-first=R. |editor2-first=G. K. |date=2002 |title=The Cambridge Grammar of English |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=323–522 }}
<!-- Phillipson2004 
-->* {{cite book |last=Phillipson |first=Robert |title=English-Only Europe?: Challenging Language Policy |date=28 April 2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-44349-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HiCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |access-date=15 February 2015 |archive-date=20 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320010606/http://books.google.com/books?id=9HiCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |url-status=live }}
<!-- Richter2012 
-->* {{cite book |last=Richter |first=Ingo |chapter=Introduction |editor1-last=Richter |editor1-first=Dagmar |editor2-last=Richter |editor2-first=Ingo |editor3-last=Toivanen |editor3-first=Reeta |display-editors=3 |editor4-last=Ulasiuk |editor4-first=Iryna |title=Language Rights Revisited: The challenge of global migration and communication |date=2012 |publisher=BWV Verlag |isbn=978-3-8305-2809-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3u9kBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |access-date=2 April 2015 |archive-date=19 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319233549/http://books.google.com/books?id=3u9kBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |url-status=live }}
<!-- Roach1999 
-->* {{cite book |last=Roach |first=Peter |title=English Phonetics and Phonology |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge |edition=4th }}
<!-- Robinson1992 
-->* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Orrin |author-link=Orrin W. Robinson (philologist) |title=Old English and Its Closest Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-8047-2221-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/oldenglishitsclo0000robi |url-access=registration |access-date=5 April 2015}}
<!-- Romaine1982 
-->* {{cite book |last=Romaine |first=Suzanne |chapter=English in Scotland |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=56–83 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Romaine1999 
-->* {{cite book |last=Romaine |first=Suzanne |chapter=Chapter 1: Introduction |title=Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=IV: 1776–1997 |editor-last=Romaine |editor-first=Suzanne |pages=01–56 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-26477-8 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521264778.002 }}
<!-- Romaine2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Romaine |first=S. |title=Language Policy in Multilingual Educational Contexts |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006465 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00646-5 |pages=584–596 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025554/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006465 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Routes of English
-->* {{cite web |title=The Routes of English |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofenglish/storysofar/programme4_6.shtml |date=1 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|The Routes of English}} |access-date=9 August 2015 |archive-date=24 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024081346/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofenglish/storysofar/programme4_6.shtml |url-status=live }}
<!-- Rowicka2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Rowicka |first=G. J. |title=Canada: Language Situation |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542018484 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01848-4 |pages=194–195 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025543/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542018484 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Rubino2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Rubino |first=C. |title=Philippines: Language Situation |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017363 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01736-3 |pages=323–326 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025632/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017363 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Ryan2013 an official report of the United States Census 
-->* {{cite web |last=Ryan |first=Camille |title=Language Use in the United States: 2011 |periodical=American Community Survey Reports |date=August 2013 |page=1 |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205101044/http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}
<!-- Sailaja 2009 
-->* {{cite book |last=Sailaja |first=Pingali |title=Indian English |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-7486-2595-6 |series=Dialects of English |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntxWxuoRBiwC |access-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=23 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323021747/http://books.google.com/books?id=ntxWxuoRBiwC |url-status=live }}
<!-- Schiffrin 1988 
-->* {{cite book |last=Schiffrin |first=Deborah |date=1988 |title=Discourse Markers |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-35718-0 |series=Studies in Interactional Sociolinguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hs7J-WqPtPAC |access-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905185324/https://books.google.com/books?id=hs7J-WqPtPAC |url-status=live }}
<!-- Schneider2007 
-->* {{cite book |last=Schneider |first=Edgar |title=Postcolonial English: Varieties Around the World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-53901-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIE6zGSd8okC |access-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801084402/https://books.google.com/books?id=QIE6zGSd8okC |url-status=live }}
<!-- Schonweitz2001
-->* {{cite journal |last=Schönweitz |first=Thomas |title=Gender and Postvocalic /r/ in the American South: A Detailed Socioregional Analysis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-speech_fall-2001_76_3/page/259 |journal=American Speech |volume=76 |issue=3 |date=2001 |pages=259–285 |doi=10.1215/00031283-76-3-259|s2cid=144403823 }}
<!-- Shaywitz2003 
-->* {{cite book |last=Shaywitz |first=Sally E. |title=Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-based Program for Reading Problems at Any Level |date=2003 |publisher=A.A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-375-40012-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXbZ1QInSF0C |access-date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905194958/https://books.google.com/books?id=hXbZ1QInSF0C |url-status=live }}
<!-- Sheidlower2006 
-->* {{cite news |last=Sheidlower |first=Jesse |title=How many words are there in English? |newspaper=Slate Magazine |date=10 April 2006 |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2139611/ |access-date=2 April 2015 |quote=The problem with trying to number the words in any language is that it's very hard to agree on the basics. For example, what is a word? |archive-date=16 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916170635/http://www.slate.com/id/2139611/ |url-status=live }}
<!-- Scheler1977 
-->* {{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Manfred|year=1977|title=Der englische Wortschatz [English Vocabulary]|location=Berlin|publisher=E. Schmidt|language=de|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GchZAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-3-503-01250-3|access-date=18 June 2017|archive-date=26 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326080028/https://books.google.com/books?id=GchZAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
<!-- Smith2009 
-->* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Jeremy J. |title=Old English: a linguistic introduction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-86677-4 }}
<!-- Statistics Canada2014 official census of Canada 
-->* {{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |title=Population by mother tongue and age groups (total), 2011 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories |date=22 August 2014 |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Pages/highlight.cfm?TabID=1&Lang=E&Asc=0&PRCode=01&OrderBy=2&View=1&tableID=401&queryID=1&Age=1#TableSummary |access-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726032921/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Pages/highlight.cfm?TabID=1&Lang=E&Asc=0&PRCode=01&OrderBy=2&View=1&tableID=401&queryID=1&Age=1#TableSummary |url-status=live }}
<!-- Statistics New Zealand2014 official census of New Zealand 
-->* {{cite web |author=Statistics New Zealand |title=2013 QuickStats About Culture and Identity |date=April 2014 |url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013%20Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/quickstats-culture-identity.pdf |page=23 |access-date=25 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115195639/http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013%20Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/quickstats-culture-identity.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2015 }}
<!-- Statistics South Africa2012 official census of South Africa 
-->* {{cite book |publisher=Statistics South Africa |title=Census 2011: Census in Brief |id=Report No. 03‑01‑41 |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-621-41388-5 |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf |chapter=Population by first language spoken and province |ref={{SfnRef|Statistics South Africa|2012}} |page=23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113164744/http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2015 |url-status=live |chapter-url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf#page=28 |editor-first=Pali |editor-last=Lehohla |location=Pretoria }}
<!-- SvartikLeech2006 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Svartvik |first1=Jan |last2=Leech |first2=Geoffrey |title=English – One Tongue, Many Voices |date=2006 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-1830-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/englishonetongue0000svar |url-access=registration |access-date=5 March 2015}}
**{{cite web |author=Lane Gilmour |date=May 29, 2007 |title=Review: Sociolinguistics: Leech; Svartvik (2006) |website=Linguist List |url=https://linguistlist.org/issues/18/18-1619/}}
<!-- Swan2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Swan |first=M. |title=English in the Present Day (Since ca. 1900) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050586 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05058-6 |pages=149–156 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025601/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050586 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Sweet1892 
-->* {{cite book |last=Sweet |first=Henry |title=A New English Grammar |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2014 |orig-date=1892 }}
<!-- Thomas 2008
-->* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Erik R. |date=2008 |chapter=Rural Southern white accents |title=Varieties of English |volume=2: The Americas and the Caribbean |pages=87–114 |editor=Edgar W. Schneider |publisher=de Gruyter |doi=10.1515/9783110208405.1.87 |isbn=978-3-11-020840-5 }}
<!-- ThomasonKaufman1988 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Thomason |first1=Sarah G. |author-link=Sarah Thomason |last2=Kaufman |first2=Terrence |author-link2=Terrence Kaufman |title=Language Contact, Creolization and Genetic Linguistics |url=https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_afr_detail-2 |publisher=University of California Press |date=1988 |isbn=978-0-520-91279-3 }}
<!-- Todd1982 
-->* {{cite book |last=Todd |first=Loreto |chapter=The English language in West Africa |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=281–305 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Toon1982 
-->* {{cite book |last=Toon |first=Thomas E. |chapter=Variation in Contemporary American English |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=210–250 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Toon1992 
-->* {{cite book |last=Toon |first=Thomas E. |chapter=Old English Dialects |editor-last=Hogg |editor-first=Richard M. |title=The Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=1: The Beginnings to 1066 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-26474-7 |pages=409–451 }}
<!-- TraskTrask2010 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Trask |first1=Larry |last2=Trask |first2=Robert Lawrence |title=Why Do Languages Change? |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83802-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qoZzBgCmFMC |access-date=5 March 2015 |archive-date=20 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320002100/http://books.google.com/books?id=9qoZzBgCmFMC |url-status=live }}
<!-- Trudgill 1999 
-->* {{cite book |last=Trudgill |first=Peter |date=1999 |title=The Dialects of England |url=https://archive.org/details/dialectsofenglan0000trud_f6f5 |edition=2nd |publisher=Blackwell |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-631-21815-9}}
<!-- Trudgill2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Trudgill |first=Peter |title=Accent |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542015066 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01506-6 |page=14 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025601/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542015066 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Trudgill & Hannah 2002 replace with 2008 5th edition 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Trudgill |first1=Peter |first2=Jean |last2=Hannah |date=2002 |title=International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English |edition=4th |location=London |publisher=Hodder Education |isbn=978-0-340-80834-4 }}
<!-- Trudgill & Hannah 2008 
-->* {{cite book |last1=Trudgill |first1=Peter |first2=Jean |last2=Hannah |date=2008 |title=International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English |edition=5th |location=London |publisher=Arnold |isbn=978-0-340-97161-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8u8MR8MNaEC |access-date=26 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402131243/http://www.tandf.net/books/details/9780340971611/ |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}
<!-- United Nations2008 
-->* {{cite web |author=United Nations |title=Everything You Always Wanted to Know About the United Nations |date=2008 |url=https://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/visitors/shared/documents/pdfs/Pub_United Nations_Everything U Always wanted to know.pdf |access-date=4 April 2015 |quote=The working languages at the UN Secretariat are English and French. }}
<!-- Wardhaugh2010 
-->* {{cite book |last=Wardhaugh |first=Ronald |title=An Introduction to Sociolinguistics |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoso0000ward_i6k0 |edition=Sixth |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-4051-8668-1 |series=Blackwell textbooks in Linguistics; 4 }}
<!-- Watts2011 
-->* {{cite book |last=Watts |first=Richard J. |title=Language Myths and the History of English |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-532760-1 |url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327601.001.0001/acprof-9780195327601 |access-date=10 March 2015 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327601.001.0001 |archive-date=18 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318165831/http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327601.001.0001/acprof-9780195327601 |url-status=live }}
**{{cite web |author=Larry LaFond |date=April 6, 2012 |title=Review: Applied Ling.; General Ling.; Ling. Theories; Socioling.: Watts (2011) |website=Linguist List |url=https://linguistlist.org/issues/23/23-1783/}}
<!--Wells 1982 
-->* {{Accents of English}}
<!-- Wojcik2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Wojcik |first=R. H. |title=Controlled Languages |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050811 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05081-1 |pages=139–142 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025557/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050811 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Wolfram2006 
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Wolfram |first=W. |title=Variation and Language: Overview |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542042565 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04256-5 |pages=333–341 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025635/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542042565 |url-status=live }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
{{refend}}

== Gweler hefyd ==
* [[Simple English]]

== Cyfeiriadau ==
{{Cyfeiriadau}}

== Dolenni allanol ==
* [http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/research/gsound/Eng/Database/Phonetics/Englishes/Home/HomeMainFrameHolder.htm Acenion Saesneg o Amgylch y Byd (Prifysgol Caeredin)] Ffeiliau sain yn cymharu sut mae 110 gair yn cael eu hynganu mewn 50 acen Saesneg o bedwar ban byd
* [http://www.dialectsarchive.com/ Archif Rhyngwladol Tafodieithoedd Saesneg – recordiadau o dafodieithoedd Saesneg ac acenion L2 rhyngwladol]

{{Wiciadur|{{PAGENAME}}}}

{{Rheoli awdurdod}}
[[Categori:Ieithoedd Eingl-Ffrisiaidd]]
[[Categori:Saesneg| ]]